Motives of the invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi on Indo-Pakistan

Motives of Mahmud’s invasion and effects of these invasions?

Different Opinions about the motives of Mahmud:

Sultan Mahmud made seventeen expeditions into Indo-Pakistan and conquered a number of places in the sub-continent. But he didn’t establish his rule over them or annex any part of the conquered territories except the Punjab. Various opinions have been expressed by the historians about the motives of Sultan Mahmud’s invasions.

Dr. Ishwari Prasad in his book "Muslim Rule in India" says that, Mahmud came to India as religious zealot accompanied by men who were prepared to sacrifice themselves in what they deemed a sacred cause. He fully exploited the religious sentiments of his followers, though he found no time to make conversions from among the native population".

Some say that "Mehmud was the greatest champion of Islam whose main motive in invading this country was to preach Islam by breaking the idols and desecrating the temples". There are others who hold the view that "his chief motive was to loot the wealth of Indo-Pakistan. He was a raider in chief who in order to satisfy his thirst for wealth, "came, burnt, killed, plundered, captured and went away". Still there are others who think and maintain that Mahmud was a great military general and conqueror and it was his ambition that brought him to this sub-continent. Thus there are different views about the motives of the Mahmud’s invasion and these views may briefly be discussed here.

Religious Motives:

There are writers who are of the opinion that chief object of Mahmud’s Indian invasion was to crush idolatry and spread Islam. According to them Mahmud had been especially engaged by Khalifah Qadir Billah of Baghdad to undertake the task of spreading Islam in India and Mahmud in his repeated invasions tried to plant Islam in India. He destroyed the great Hindu temples of Nagarkot, Somnath and other places and compelled thousand of Hindus including many Rajast to embrace Islam.

The age of Mahmud was not religious in character:

The view of the historians cannot be accepted in the face of facts. The age of holy war was over long ago. The idea of propagation of Islam had ceased to be considered a part of the duty of the sovereign at the time of Sultan Mahmud.
Professor M. Habib says in his book "Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni" that, "the non-religious character of his expeditions will be obvious to the critic who has grasped the salient feature of the age. It is impossible to read a religious motive into them".

Himself a Muslim never forced religion on others:

was not a preacher, but a great conqueror. He was a pious Muslim but never forced his religion on others. Islam sanctions neither vandalism nor plundering motives of the invader.

Dr. M. Nazim is of the opinion in his book "Life and Times of Sultan Mahmud" that, Some Rajas are said to have embraced Islam, but they did so most probably as a political shift to escape the fury of the conqueror and returned to their faith as soon as he had turned his back on them".

Sir W. Haig in his book "Cambrige History of India says that, "His religious policy was based on toleration and though zealous for Islam, he maintained a large body of Hindu troops and there is no reason to believe that conversion was condition of their services."

It is a different thing if a Hindu Raja and his followers embraced Islam either for the fear of defeat or for enjoying privileges under Islam.

His army composed of a large body of Hindu troops:

The Hindu soldiers fought shoulder to shoulder with the Muslims against the common enemy. Had it been a Holy War, it would not have been possible to against their co-religionists. According to M. Elphinstone, "It is nowhere asserted that he ever put a Hindu to death except in battle or in the storm of a fort".

Mahmud massacred a good number of Muslims in Persia and almost all his Central Asian expeditions were against his co-religionists. According to Dr. M. Nazim, "If he harassed the Hindu Rajas of India, he did not spare the Muslim sovereigns of Iran and Transoxiania."

Religious liberty granted to the Hindus

Under his benign government the Hindus enjoyed complete religious freedom. He granted the Hindus separate quarters in Ghazni where they were at liberty to perform their religious rites and ceremonies. The Hindus were appointed to highly responsible posts and the names of Tilak Rai, Hazari Rai and Sonai stand out prominently in the military history of Ghazni. He also instituted a college and a market in Ghazni for the propagation of Hindu culture and Sanskrit works. If he was a fanatic, how could it be possible for him to do these things?

Destruction of temples was due to military programme:

Mahmud of course, destroyed some of the temples of the Hindus. This destruction of Hindu temples was a part of his military programme, for the temples were the repositories of accumulated wealth. There certain writers who blame Mahmud for "wanton destruction of temples". But they have forgotten that it was only during war that the temples were destroyed. He never destroyed any temple in peace time nor did any temple suffer desecration at his hands, if he had not been aware of its riches. He was not actuated by a desire to punish the idolators nor to spread the faith of Islam.

The famous historian al-Beruni who was an eye witness says, "The treasurers were accumulated in the temples by the bounty of pious Hindus who had grown rich by selling their surplus produce to foreign merchants."

Charge of invading India on religious ground was base less:

The temples were regarded as inviolate and some times even monarchs kept huge wealth in the safe custody at these temples.

According to Dr. Iswari Prasad, "The temples of India which Mahmud raided were store-houses of enormous and untold wealth and also some of these were political centers".

Hence, the view of the critics that Mahmud invaded India again and again to preach Islam by breaking the idols and desecrating the temples is historically wrong and psychologically untrue.

Political Motive:

According to some historians Mahmud’s motive in invading India was to satisfy him ambition of conquest and to extend his empire to this country. There is no doubt that Mahmud was an ambitious man and it was but natural for him to cherish the idea of extending his empire to the east.

Invasions of India arouse out of political necessity:

This idea arouse out of necessity. The North-West Frontier of India occupies a strategic position and its occupation is of vital importance to the Kingdom of Kabul and Afghanistan. It may be mentioned here that Jaypal, the King of the Hindushahi kingdom of the Punjab, viewed the rise of the Ghaznavid power with great alarm and it was he who first invaded Ghazni during the time of Sabuktigin. Though he drank the cup of humiliation at the hands of Sabuktigin, the issue remained unsettled and when Mahmud ascended the throne, he took up the issue.

His motive to establish a Central Asian Empire:

Sultan Mahmud wanted to establish a Central Asian Empire and for this, he followed a policy of conquest and consolidation in the west. But in east Mahmud remained satisfied with the annexation of the Punjab and some other places such as Sind and Multan. These places formed the second line of his defense in the east and south-east. His Indian invasion was one of the political rather than religious interests.

Disloyalty of the Hindus:

In addition to the occupation of North-West Frontier in the interest of his kingdom, the violation of the terms of the treaty by the Hindu Rajas, the renouncing of allegiance to the Sultan, the political betrayal in the form of help to his enemies, the molestation of his Indian allies by their hostile neighbours and the rebellion of the Indian vassals compelled Mahmud to invade Indo-Pakistan.

Economic Motives:

According to S. M. Jaffar and Professor Habib, the real motive of Mahmud’s invasion of India was economic and not religious.

R.C. Majumdar in his book, "An Advanced History of India" says that, "Mahmud was neither a missionary for the propagation of religion in this country nor an architect of empire. The main object of his eastern expeditions seems to have been the acquisition of the "wealth of India" and the destruction of morale of its custodians.

Economic Necessity:

Mahmud was in need of Money and the fabulous wealth of India might have attracted him to the fertile plains of Hindustan. Whenever he led an expedition, he went back with enormous money in order to finance his campaigns against his Central Asian enemies and to build Ghazni into a great empire. Hence, it can be concluded that the real motives of Mahmud’s Indian invasions were economic-cum-political and not religious.

Was Mahmud a Raider?

Unlike other Central Asian rulers, Mahmud of Ghazni did not like to live here permanently. So after conquering the land and destroying the power of his enemies he went back to his own country. His invasions seem to be merely plundering raids and he appears to the historians of India more as raider than a conqueror. But his conquests in other direction and those in the sub-continent, though the later had little permanent result, speak positively of Mahmud as a great conqueror.

Mahmud availed the opportunity:

Mahmud fully realized the importance of wealth in attaining political power and when India offered him that chance, he availed himself of it. The money which he took from India was properly spent for the improvement of the capital. But one thing seems to be certain. His frequent raids must have caused hardship to the population of the north-western part of this sub-continent.

Conclusion:

Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi was a man of ambition. Early in life he formed the resolve of spreading the faith of Prophet in distant lands his investiture by the Khalifah further sharpened his zeal and he made it obligatory on himself to undertake every year an expedition to Hind. According to Sir Henry Elliot, he led as many as seventeen expeditions. India with her myriad faiths and fabulous wealth presented a favourable field for the exercise of his religious and political ambitions. He was a pious Muslim who observed all the injunctions of Islam in his daily life, but he never forced religion on others. He knew the Quran by heart and possessed sufficient knowledge of the Hadith. He was a true Mujahid who worked for the cause of Islam. He crushed the idolatry and polytheism in India. As rightly said by M. Habib, "When he was breaking the idol of Somnath, the priests offered him immense wealth, only if he spared that remained of their god, but he replied that he wished to be known in the world as the Mahmud the breaker of idols and not as Mahmud the seller of idols". (farishta) Mahmud paved the way for the propagation of Islam and Islamic empire in future. "The expedition of Somnath" says Dr. M. Nazim, "is one of the greatest feats of military adventure in the history of Islam." Ishwari Prasad, "to the Muslim of his days, he was a Ghazi who tried to extirpate, infidelity in heathen land. He was an orthodox Sunni and took a keen interest in religion

Consequences of Arab Conquest of Sind

Ultimate consequences of Arab conquest of Sind

Arab conquest of Sind was of great significance and impact, politically, socio-culturally, religiously, intellectually and even economically. Though the Arabs were not the actual conquerors of India, they were the path finders and torch bearers. The conquest was a great give and take. Historians attach little importance to Arab rule in Sind, but though the visible traces of Arab ascendancy have been obliterated, its invisible effects were many and far-reaching. Most of them, of course, relate to the province of Sind, which has been called "the Hijaz of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent".

Effects of the conquest of Sind:

Lane Poole, "the Arab conquest of Sind is an episode in the history of India and of Islam, a triumph without result".
Professor Syed Abdu Qadir Shuja-ud-Din, " After the conquest of Sind a large number of scholars, traders inhabited in Sind. Local people embraced Islam. Today Sind is the same Islamic region like the Iraq and Egypt, in these circumstances we cannot deny the greatness of t

he Arab conquest of Sind, its historical importance and its consequences".

M.Kabir , " undoubtedly establishment of Islamic government in Sind is the greatest event in the history of Islam and sub-continent".

1- Little effect in Political Sphere:

There is no doubt that Arab conquest was confined to Sind and Multan only and the major portion of northern India was not directly affected. Expeditions were send against Hindu princes of the north, but the Rajputs were too strong to be defeated. The sudden death of Muhammad bin Qasim and fruitless help of the Khalifah had greatly shaken the Arab stability in Sind. Within the decline of the power of the Khalifah, territories of Sind were divided into independent states.

a- Qasim’s attack revealed the political and military weakness of sub-continent:




The Indo-Pakistan sub-continent presented a chequered picture of warring dynasties and of small kingdoms hostile to one another on the eve of the Arab invasion. There was no central government in the country. All these states enjoyed complete independence and sovereignty. The same situation was on the occasion of the invasion of Alexander the Great. Throughout the history of the sub-continent they united on few occasions otherwise they were fighting for the supremacy on one another.

It was proved from the Muhammad bin Qasim’s invasion that people of sub-continent could not unite from against their common enemy. If they are managed to form a confederation against a common enemy then they also cannot get their goals. Because in their army there is lack of uniformity and discipline. They belong to different areas and princes thus could not fight bravely and secondly their main problem was lack of leadership. Thus the attack on Sind revealed their political and military weakness which were helpful for the establishment of Muslim Empire in the sub-continent in the later periods.

The arrangements made by Muhammad bin Qasim with the non-Muslims provided the basis for later Muslim policy in the sub-continent.

b- Arab soldiers settled:

Most of Arab soldiers settled in Sind for good and some of them married Sindi women. The Arab and Hindus lived side by side in peace and amity for a long time. The Arabs left a legacy behind in the shape of buildings or administrative or cultural institutions that might have exerted influence on India.

c- Legacy of Arab Administration:

The Arabs were not only great warriors and conquerors, but also good administrators. The administration introduced by Muhammad bin Qasim in Sind leads us to believe that the Arabs possessed experience in the art of administration and were not cruel and fanatic as it is general supposed by the people.

The Arab governors were farsighted statesmen and great politicians. They did not disturbed the existing system of administration in Sind. According to Chach Nama, "Reposing full confidence in them, Muhammad bin Qasim entrusted them with high offices and placed all important affairs of the place in their hands." Steps were taken to improve and encourage agriculture and trade. Artisans and merchants were free from molestation.

Justice was administered without fear or favour. The Qazis who were well-versed in Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, filled the seats of Judgment. In matter of pubic and political offences the law made no distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims. Some cases among the Hindus were decided according to Hundu Law by the Panchayats.
When Muhammad bin Qasim was dismissed and arrested by the orders of Khalifah the people started worship of his statue due to his good administration and justice. The Arab administration was based on the principles of Justice, equality, toleration and welfare. It was a role model for the later Turk sovereigns.

d- Cantonments turned into big cities:

Muhammad bin Qasim was a genius administrator. He established many cantonments in different places for the internal peace, law and order and for discipline. He permitted the Arab soldiers to settle and marry with Sindi women. Mansura, Kanda, Baiza, Mehfooza and Multan were the famous cantonments of that time. These cities proved to be the centre of culture and civilization.

Dr. Ishwari Prasad, " It may by conceded at once that the Arab conquest of Sind from political point of view, was an insignificant event in the history of Islam" The statement is nullified by the above mentioned facts.

2- Profound and far-reaching effect on culture

The establishment of Muslim rule in Sind had profound and far reaching effects in the field of culture and learning of the land. "The Arabs had brought with them a new religion and a new civilization which they introduced among the conquered people. They brought India into direct contact with the Islamic world and opened immense possibilities of commercial and cultural progress". (K.Ali)

i- Social Effects:

Before the conquest of Sind the Arabs were not only nomads but also bandits. The were uncivilized. The terrirotory of sind became civilized after the inasaion of Arabs. They got awareness of law, its importance and obedience.
Until recently the social pattern in Sind was largely tribal, the place of Arab Shaikh being taken by the Sindi Wadera. The world Wadera itself is a literal translation of Arabic counterpart. Such Arab virtues as hospitality have always distinguished Sind, and the standard of Arabic scholarship has also remained high. After the interaction of two different nations a new civilization came into existence, whose vivacious example "Sindi Language" is still present today.

Arab scholars inhabited in Sind and several Hindu scholars embraced Islam and permanently settled in Arabia. The Muslim treated the Sindi generously and granted them complete religious freedom. In a result a lot of Sindi Brahman and Buddhist embraced Islam.

Arab had started some new kind of industries in Sind. They planted in Sind some new kind of plants. The Arab brought horse and camels Sind and still today they inhabitants use the camel.

ii- Religious Effects:

Toleration was shown by the Arab governors of Sind to their subjects irrespective of caste and creed. Some of the temples were no doubt destroyed during the days of war, but that was a temporary phase, for the destruction was not due to religious bigotry or fanaticism but to the fact that the temples were the repositories of India’s aglong accumulated wealth. Once a place was occupied and peace restored or the people submitted to the ruler and sought peace, the conqueror adopted a kind and conciliatory policy towards them. When the people of Brahmanabad, for instance submitted to the conqueror, they were allowed to rebuild their temples which were destroyed during the time of war.

The Brahmins were permitted to perform their rites and ceremonies in the manner prescribed by their religion. Hajjaj bin Yusaf sent a farman to Muhammad bin Qasim instructing him to grant the population of Sind rights to life and property in lieu of their submission and willingness to pay taxes to the Muslim administration. They were also given the right to perform their religious rites as they pleased.

The Arab believed on the policy of toleration, they have given complete religious freedom. They also given the permission to repair the ruined temples and construct the new ones. Due to the High moral and character the Muslims attracted the local population. In a result majority of the population of Sind accepted Islam.
Numerous Ulema, scholars, preachers, traders from Arabia settled in Sind. Ulema and Sufis had given great importance to the propagation of Islam and majority of the Sindis embraced Islam.

iv-Intellectual Effects:

The Arab acquired from the Hindus some new knowledge in Indian religion, philosophy, astronomy, medicine and folklore and carried it to their own country as well as to Europe.

Many of the Sanskrit works on astronomy and mathematics were translated into Arabic under the patronage of the Abbassid Khalifahs. During the reign of Harun-ar-Rashid Hindu scholars were invited to Baghdad to translate into Arabic Sanskrit works on medicine, philosophy, astronomy and other subjects. Similarly many Arab savants studied Sanskrit to satisfy their thirst for knowledge of Indian culture.

The digit system was first invented in the sub-continent. Arabs adopted that procedure. Even today the Arabic digits form one to nine are same like written in Hindi and these are called Arabic Numerals. Famous Arab mathematician Khuarzami translated Hindi mathematics into Arabi.

Once the Khalifah Harun-ar-Rashid fell ill. For his treatment a physician was called from the sub-continent. Khalifah recovered with his vedic treatment. After that vedic physician was appointed in the hospital of Baghdad. Hindi herbs were imported and several books on medicine were translated into Arabic.

Ishwari Prasad opines, "It must be admitted that Muslims soon secularized the learning they borrowed from India and presented it to the European world in a new garb which was perhaps more acceptable to the European mind". Amir Khusrau mentioned that the Arab astronomer Abu Mashar came to Benares, the seat of Hindu learning, and studied astronomy there for ten years.

Thus we find that the exchange of ideas and the cultural contact between the Arabs and the Hindus were possible as a result of the Arab conquest. To the natives, particularly to the lower class, the Muslim rule symbolized prosperity and emancipation. This is why the Jats and the Meds accorded welcome to the Arabs by blowing conch-shell. So from the cultural point of view, the invasion of Sind cannot be regarded as an isolated military event.
The Arabs left a legacy behind in the shape of buildings or administrative or cultural institutions that might have exerted influence on India. The Sindi language shows Arab influence even today. It is wrong to say that the Arab conquest of Sind had absolutely no effect on India. (K.Ali)

K.Ali rebutted, "From the political, religious, social, cultural and literary point of view, the invasion of Sind cannot be regarded as an isolated military event. Hence the statement, that the Arab conquest of Sind was a triumph without results, cannot be accepted in toto".

Mahmud Ghaznavi (979-1030)

One of the most controversial personalities in the history of South Asia, Mahmud Ghaznavi is known as one of the greatest conquerors the world has ever seen. He was one of the very few leaders who were never defeated in a battlefield. Born in 979, Mahmud became the Sultan of Ghazni in 998. He inherited the small state of Ghazni from his father Subuktigin, and turned it into an empire that lasted for about a century. He was a brave man and use to take part in all the battles his forces fought. Though he was interested in extending his empire toward Central Asia, the maneuverings of the Hindu rulers of Punjab forced him to invade South Asia. He came to South Asia seventeen times and went back to Ghazni every time with a great victory. He fought against the strong forces of Jaipal, Annadpal, Tarnochalpal, Kramta and the joint forces of Hindu Rajas and Maharajas but all of them were forced to flee away from the battlefield due to Mahmud's war strategy as a general. After the conquest of Multan and Lahore, Mahmud made Punjab a part of his empire in 1021.
Unlike other great conquerors like Alexander and Chengez Khan, Mahmud did not leave the areas conquered to the mercy of his soldiers. After becoming the first Muslim ruler to conquer Northern Punjab, he consolidated his rule in the area and established his provincial headquarters at Lahore. He established law and order in the areas that he ruled, giving special attention to the people he ruled. The department of police and post were efficient. His judicial system was very good as everybody was equal before the law and justice was the order of the day.

Mahmud was also a great patron of learning. His court was full of scholars including giants like Firdosi the poet, Behqi the historian and Al-Biruni the versatile scholar. It is said that he used to spend four hundred thousand golden Dinars on scholars. He invited the scholars from all over the world and was thus known as an abductor of scholars. Under Mahmud, Ghazni became one of the most important and beautiful cities of the Islamic world. It was the city of mosques, madrasas and libraries. He also established a Museum in Ghazni. During his rule, Lahore also became a great center of learning and culture. Lahore was called 'Small Ghazni'. Saad Salman, a poet of those times, has written about the academic and cultural life of Lahore.

Mahmud was also a deeply religious man. He himself wrote a book on Fiqh. He had respect for other religions. A large number of Hindus lived in Ghazni, and they enjoyed religious freedom. One of his commanders named Tilak was a Hindu. A number of soldiers in his army were also Hindus. Mahmud attacked the Hindu Temples in India because of political and not religious reasons.

Mahmud Ghaznavi died on April 30 1030.